Thorn Queen Chapter Seventeen

Jasmine almost jumped ten feet noticeable all around when I came tearing through the corridor that prompted her phone. â€Å"You!† I shouted. â€Å"You can call water demons.† She augmented her eyes, confused for a change. It seemed like I'd interfered with her doing†¦well, nothing. In an attack of blame, I'd sent a few books down to her to sit back, yet reports from the gatekeepers said she did close to nothing yet pout. All things considered, that and attempt to persuade them to allow her to out. I surmise she figured she'd manage Volusian after she got one of the watchmen to split. Recuperating herself a second later, she received a jeer suggestive of Ysabel's. Thinking about their shared disdain of me, perhaps I ought to have sent her down here to engage Jasmine. â€Å"Maybe,† Jasmine yielded. â€Å"Why? Apprehensive I'll utilize them to break out?† â€Å"No,† I said. â€Å"But I need them to dispose of some fire demons.† Roland had revealed to me the most ideal approach to remove the evil spirits would be by bringing their alternate extremes. I'd excused the thought at that point, realizing it was past my capacity. Simultaneously, I'd thought about how conceivable it is that Jasmine could do it†¦though it had appeared to be a futile slant considering I'd had no idea to her whereabouts or any motivation to think she'd help me. Be that as it may, presently? Indeed, things were unique. Workmanship's demeanor had left me feeling vulnerable and inadequate. Presently, I abruptly felt as if I had the way to take control and in reality right a few wrongs in this realm. â€Å"So?† Jasmine asked, not appearing to be frightened at all. â€Å"That has nothing to do with me.† â€Å"Not valid. You're going to support me. We're going to confront them and their lord, and you will call water animals to bring down those demons.† Jasmine's demeanor was practically funny in its doubt. â€Å"Why would I help you?† I attempted great cop first. â€Å"Because it's the best activity. They're harming blameless people.† â€Å"So? Like I stated, that doesn't influence me.† â€Å"Spoken like the childish youngster you are.† She flushed. Thinking of her as fixation on having an infant and administering over the two universes, she didn't care for having her age or capacities taunted. â€Å"I thought you needed to be the sovereign of this land once.† She glared. â€Å"Yes. What's more, I would have been on the off chance that you hadn't taken it!† â€Å"Why? Why be sovereign in the event that you have no expectation of busy? Did you simply need to wear a crown and have individuals grovel?† She didn't recognize that and rather answered stonily, â€Å"I'm not helping you.† I ventured toward the bars, grinning pleasantly, despite the fact that I was going to enter terrible cop mode. â€Å"Oh, you are. Regardless of whether you like it or not.† â€Å"What, you're going to compel me or something?† Very quickly, I had my Glock out and pointing directly at her. She withered and supported in a bad position, looking particularly like she needed to liquefy into it. Behind me, I heard a slight rearranging among the watchmen. Firearms were a human weapon, made of steel and combinations and different substances that were utter horror to the upper class. They were similarly fatal to people or, for Jasmine's situation, half-people. â€Å"You're crazy,† she said. I shrugged. €Å"i have work to do, and you're critical to completing it. You can coordinate, and possibly I'll improve your living courses of action. Give you a room rather than a cell.† I could see musings and plans turning behind her eyes. Jasmine was youthful, unpracticed, and self-centered†¦but she wasn't dumb. I needed to think to some degree brightly that that too was a family quality. â€Å"And on the off chance that I don't do it, you're going to shoot me?† â€Å"Well, everybody says I should slaughter you anyway.† My voice was quiet, my face hard. I didn't have the foggiest idea whether she would trust me or not. For hell's sake, I didn't have the foggiest idea whether I trusted myself. She realized I had little love for her in the wake of all that she'd done, and I'd since quite a while ago had a notoriety for being a savage contender and-the same number of nobility saw it-killer. Jasmine gulped. She was attempting to look quiet as well, however her eyes sold out her. â€Å"How do you realize I won't call them and have them turn on you once my sleeves are off? You realize I can't wear them and still have that sort of power.† I discharged the security on the firearm, which was as yet pointed at her. â€Å"Because I'll have this on the rear of your head the whole time.† Long quietness fell. Volusian was still to such an extent that I'd about overlooked he was there. At long last, Jasmine stated, â€Å"I despise you.† â€Å"So†¦that's a yes?† I accepting her quiet as an affirmation and set the firearm aside, returning the wellbeing on and feeling somewhat shocked at the beating of my own heart. Had I extremely simply pointed a firearm at a fifteen-year-old young lady? Roland and Kiyo both thought managing enchantment could change the sort of individual you were. Was playing with lightning and air transforming me into somebody who could without much of a stretch compromise others to get my direction? No, I chose. This had nothing to do with the enchantment. This was need. I expected to remove those fire devils, and this was the best approach to do it. â€Å"Eugenie?† A delicate voice pulled me from my beating feelings. â€Å"Kiyo!† He remained there in the corridor, and I considered the amount he'd caught. It didn't make a difference. I was simply so madly glad to see him. The greatness in my heart helped, and if there hadn't been such a significant number of witnesses, I would have run into his arms. He looked astounding, wearing human clothing: pants and a plain dark T-shirt that embraced his muscles consummately. The smooth dark hair twisted around his jaw, and his skin looked like caramel. Yet, his eyes†¦his eyes were hard. I gave Jasmine an admonition look. â€Å"We'll talk later.† â€Å"Fuck you, Eugenie,† she called. I grasped Kiyo's hand and strolled back upstairs with him. Seeing him discharged all the apprehensive strain in me that had been developing since the previous evening. I'd been so twisted up, so stressed and apprehensive. Presently, it resembled everything was directly on the planet by and by. The report about the infant was no picnic for me, however I despite everything needed to compliment him. The words were all the rage when we were distant from everyone else, except he talked first. â€Å"Really, Eugenie? This is what it's come to?† My head was as yet thrilled over observing him. â€Å"What do you mean?† He pointed back toward the cell entryway from which we'd quite recently developed. â€Å"That! I never expected to discover you with a firearm to an adolescent young lady's head.† â€Å"It wasn't actually to her head,† I said. â€Å"And she can assist us with disposing of those evil presences. Regardless of whether she can't gather genuine water evil spirits herself, we both realize she can call other water creatures.† Kiyo and I had fended off whatever animals including one that had gotten us in a bargaining position in his vehicle and about slaughtered the two of us. â€Å"Those could give us the edge.† â€Å"And on the off chance that she doesn't, you truly are going to murder her?† I moaned and quit strolling, inclining toward one of the woven artwork secured dividers so I could confront him. â€Å"Do you truly figure I'd do that?† â€Å"She assumed you would, and to come clean with you, I sort of did as well. I don't think you understand how frightening you can be.† He remained before me, with little separation among us, and there was an odd blend of sexual science and threat noticeable all around. â€Å"There's a bizarre vibe to you†¦have you been rehearsing magic?† I didn't answer quickly, which was in the same class as an affirmation of blame. The look he gave me was practically more frightened than when he'd suspected I was going to shoot Jasmine. â€Å"A little.† â€Å"A little! Eugenie,† he murmured, inclining close. â€Å"There's no in the middle of with this stuff. You continue doing it, and you're simply going to fall farther and farther down the bunny hole.† I giggled and hurled my arms, motioning to the palace. â€Å"I fell into Wonderland quite a while ago.† â€Å"You realize what I mean. I figured you weren't going to do it any longer. I thought we concurred it was bad.† â€Å"You agreed,† I amended, feeling my own temper begin to rise. â€Å"I got an opportunity to find out additional, and I chose to take it. Also, similar to I stated, it's just been a little.† â€Å"Learn from who?† he asked dubiously. â€Å"A lady from Dorian's realm. She has some capacity with controlling air and has been telling me the best way to utilize it. I may be very nearly calling lightning too.† before his angry look, there was an impulse to be sheepish†¦and yet, I felt sort of glad at what I'd achieved. â€Å"Of course. Dorian. Some way or another, I'm not surprised.† â€Å"Hey, Dorian's been pleasant to me lately.† My resistance of the upper class lord astonished me-as did reality of it. With such a great amount in disarray as of late, I'd discovered Dorian's quality practically consoling. Kiyo feigned exacerbation. â€Å"Yes, and I'm certain he'd love to be more pleasant still. See, you begin putting each one of those otherworldly components together, and you will have some genuine force on your hands. You will resemble â€Å" â€Å"Do not state like Storm King!† I cried. â€Å"I wish everybody would simply quit accepting that that is inescapable. A lot of nobility utilize enchantment without turning out to be domineering warlords. Give me some credit here.† â€Å"I'm simply stressed over you,† he snarled. â€Å"And do you realize what I'm stressed over? I'm stressed over individuals starving here, about individuals not getting enough water. I'm stressed over rascals and evil spirits going after honest people. I'm stressed over young ladies vanishing and perhaps being snatched by the individuals who face no responsibility. And the entirety of this is on attempting to in any case carry on with my human life and keep each goddamned Otherworldly person out of my jeans. So don't come here and begin directing to me. You're never near. You have no clue about what I'm going through!† I was yelling, and it was

Mainframe/Pc Evolution Free Essays

Centralized computer/PC Evolution The advancement of centralized computer registering to individualized computing started with the development of the centralized computer for organizations and government use. The Personal Computer (PC) advanced from organizations needing a similar data from downsized adaptation of the centralized computer and stupid terminal. In spite of the fact that the two of them comprise of information stockpiling, processors, information and yield gadgets. We will compose a custom article test on Centralized computer/Pc Evolution or on the other hand any comparative subject just for you Request Now In any case, they have their disparities. Centralized servers The centralized computer was developed in the 1950’s. One of the primary centralized servers was the Univac 1, which was conveyed to the Census Bureau in 1952. It estimated 25-feet by 50-feet and had a capacity limit of 1000 words or 12,000 characters (Lexikon Services, 1982). During the 1970s the centralized computer changed with the improvement of UNIX working framework (Rogers, 2010). A centralized computer as indicated by Vaughan (n. d. ), â€Å"A centralized server is a ceaselessly advancing universally useful processing stage fusing in it building definition the basic usefulness required by its objective applications† (standard. 5). The Mainframe is a multi-client information stockpiling and application registering framework. Centralized server frameworks can be a solitary centralized computer unit or numerous centralized computer units, contingent upon the quantity of clients and utilizations, it is required for. Data is entered in on an idiotic terminal or workstation. The centralized server can be in a similar room or in another room and even on an alternate floor. The centralized computer is known for its unwavering quality and why organizations are eager to spend the a large portion of a-million dollars or more for them. Centralized computers have quick transport speeds, high reserve speeds, blunder recognition, and mistake remedy (Rogers, 2010). PCs One of the main PCs to be viewed as a Personal Computer was the IBM PC in 1981. Others were designed from 1955. It comprised of a screen, console, and work area base with diskette drives. It gauged 28 pounds. Organizations were searching for an approach to down-scale and cut the expense of the centralized server framework. The Personal Computer, as per Whatis. com is a â€Å"microcomputer intended for use by one individual at a time† (TechTarget, 2008, standard. 1). In today’s terms it comprise of a presentation unit, console, mouse, tower or work area that comprises of a hard drive, memory, processors, mother board, and other equipment to do its capacities as a microcomputer. The expense of a Personal Computer has gotten moderate throughout the years for a person to buy for home use just as organization use. The utilization of a PC changes in that it is utilized for organization business, home registering, gaming, and has different open doors for an individual figuring needs. The PC has changed the manner in which individuals work together, take care of their tabs, engage themselves, and impart. The PC can process information, run projects and applications, become a database, and can be organized into different PC’s and centralized servers. The Personal Computer makes it simpler for littler organizations to accomplish what bigger organizations can do with centralized computers. Pc’s can be arranged together can have a similar data, store data, and work proficiently. The hand held PC accommodates processing portability, which accommodates greater profitability. PC and Mainframe Comparison The centralized computer is a huge, dependable, multi-client registering framework costing a large number of dollars. On the off chance that a centralized computer has any vacation, the entire framework and clients can't work. The PC is a little, reasonable, and single client microcomputer that an individual can purchase. It very well may be utilized for business and home registering. It has similitudes to the centralized computer; show unit, console, processor, memory, data stockpiling, and working frameworks. Differentiations â€Å"Mainframe working frameworks are planned fundamentally to advance use of equipment. (PC) working frameworks bolster complex games, business applications, and everything in between† (Silbershcatz, Galvin, Gagne, 2009). The centralized computer is more expensive than a PC. Be that as it may, it is more dependable than the PC. The centralized server can process data a lot quicker than a PC. It likewise has quicker transport speeds and higher reserve speeds. The equipment in a centralized computer has mistake recognition and blunder rectification for less vacation (Rogers, 2010). The PC is littler, less expensive, and a solitary client PC framework. Its uses incorporate home, business, and amusement purposes. The PC framework is can without much of a stretch be moved by one individual, the Mainframe framework takes various individuals to move it. End The centralized server cleared a path for the PC. In an enormous business setting a centralized server would merit the cost. The PC is proceeding to advance and is decreasing and more developed as innovation propels. Despite the fact that they have their disparities, every fill it need in today’s society. References Blinkenlights Archeological Institute. (1999-2007). Pop Quiz: What was the principal PC? Recovered November 26, 2011from http://www. blinkenlights. com/pc. shtml Lexikon Services. (1982-2000). UNIVAC 1 (1951) First Commercially Available Computer. Recovered November 26, 2011 from http://www. computermuseum. li/Testpage/UNIVAC-1-FullView-A. htm Rogers, S. (2010). Correlation and Contrast Between Mainframes and PC’s. Recovered November 26, 2011 from http://www. associatedcontent. com/article/5884114/comparison_and_contrast_between_mainframes. html? cat=15 Silbershcatz, A. , Galvin, P. B. , Gagne, G. (2009). Working System Concepts (eighth ed. ). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Inc. TechTarget. (2008). Whatis. com. Recovered November 26, 2011 from http://whatis. techtarget. com/definition/0,,sid9_gci214279,00. html Vaughan, L. H. (n. d. ). What is a â€Å"Mainframe†. Recovered November 26, 2011 from http://www. centralized computers. com/whatis. htm The most effective method to refer to Mainframe/Pc Evolution, Papers

Health Psychology Research Topic Ideas

Health Psychology Research Topic Ideas Student Resources Print Health Psychology Topic Ideas By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on December 08, 2018 Blend Images - Hill Street Studios / Getty Images More in Student Resources APA Style and Writing Study Guides and Tips Careers Health psychology, also known as medical psychology or behavioral medicine,  focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior,  and social factors influence health and well-being.?? Its a diverse and rich field worth exploring if youre studying to be a health professional and have an assignment that requires doing research or writing a paper. Health Psychology Research and Paper Topic Ideas Next time youre looking for a research topic for your studies and would like to focus on health psychology, consider the suggestions that follow. These can be the inspiration for an experiment, a research paper, or any other type of class project. Before you begin, make sure the topic youre interested in is in keeping with the specific assignment. Even if your instructor doesnt require you to get approval for your intended topic, its always a good idea to run it by him before you delve too deeply into your research. Of course, make sure youve chosen a subject that you know youll be able to find appropriate sources for. You wouldnt want to commit to a project only to find that theres not enough existing information to work with. Again, input from your instructor can prevent you from wasting time on a topic that offers little to go on. How to Find Good Sources for Your Psychology Research Paper Exercise and Eating Behavior Topic Ideas Explore some of the psychological strategies that can help people stick to a diet and exercise program. Is there any singular strategy that is more effective than others?Analyze how media depictions of ideal bodies influence anorexia and bulimia.?? Is there a link between exposure to these images and eating disorders? Family Health and Safety Topic Ideas Explore how increased public awareness of infant safety, such as placing an infant on his back to sleep, or removing pillows and other objects from the sleeping area, have influenced the occurrence of SIDS or crib death. Has the number of SIDS-related deaths gone down? Why do some parents ignore these sleep safety guidelines?Assess current approaches to childhood immunizations. Why do some parents choose not to immunize their children??? How does this impact public health? What can health professionals do to increase the likelihood that kids are immunized?Explore the factors that contribute to  teen suicide. How effective are suicide prevention programs?Look at the emotional, social, and psychological impact of caregiving, such as taking care of an aging parent, a family member with AIDS, or a spouse suffering from Alzheimers. Public Health Topic Ideas What can  mental health  and medical professionals do to help people cope in the immediate aftermath of a disaster??? Are there any strategies that result in better long-term outcomes?Research the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among veterans. What factors contribute to whether an individual veteran experiences PTSD??? What mental health interventions are most effective in treating this disorder?Evaluate how stress management techniques and relaxation methods can help patients suffering from chronic pain. How effective are these tactics? How do they compare to traditional pharmacological approaches to pain management?Compare and contrast different approaches to smoking cessation. Which strategies are the most effective?Look at different techniques that can be used to increase the likelihood that people will use safety equipment such as seatbelts and bicycle helmets. What type of public safety program would you devise to encourage the use of these products?

The Yellow Wallpaper, By Charlotte Perkins Gilman And The...

The Yellow Wallpaper, by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and The Orphanage, directed by J.A Bayona, are both female driven stories, and due to a lack of dominant female roles in books and television, these pieces make statements on our society. The 19th century had very few female rights and very strict gender roles. A time when most women were thought to have some form of mental illness, and due to a lack of medical knowledge were vastly mistreated. The lapse in medicinal science, in combination with extremely sexist ideologies caused more harm to come to women than help. The Yellow Wallpaper, with a nameless female Narrator, depicts how women seen as unwell were treated in the 1900’s. The Orphanage, through the main character Laura, portrays how differently women seen as sick are treated today. Both stories cross the line to the supernatural in a very similar fashion, and descend into madness after the loss of their children. While both stories face different obstacles, the most r elevance can be gleaned from the differences between them. History’s importance is it’s ability to prevent repetition of mistakes, and show the world how far it has come. The first issue which should be addressed, is the fact that the Narrator is an unreliable narrator, as such the reader should not take what she says at face value. Correspondingly, a baby is referenced by both the Narrator and John, her husband; however none interact with the infant once in The Yellow Wallpaper. Not only is there noShow MoreRelatedThe Yellow Wallpaper By Charlotte Perkins Gilman1208 Words   |  5 Pagesisolation is tempting to a person who feels overwhelmed and overly surrounded by human interaction, but it is much less tempting and much more terrifying to one who has truly experienced isolation. Charlotte Perkins Gilman is one person who falls into the latter category. She wrote, â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† as a social commentary and personal narrative on the widely accepted treatment of rest cure, which she had undergone herself. She spoke out against the treatment vigorously, as her first hand experiencesRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book A Good Man And The Yellow Wallpaper 1563 Words   |  7 Pagesfundamental qualities of their identities. The object of this essay is to prove who seems to be the most solitary character between the books Light in August by William Faulkner, A Good Man is Hard to Find by Flannery O’Connor and The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. In these stories, the idea of isolation is the loneliness that has been experienced in a characters life. Some characters have experienced their loneliness since early childhood while others have been kept isolated involuntarily

How Descartes Throws On The Wind Of Search For A Universal...

In this essay I will address how Descartes throws all his beliefs to the wind in search for a universal and unchanging foundational truth, that bypass his deceptive senses and shines light on all his beliefs that are clearly and distinctly, proven based on his supreme foundational truth. As Descartes tries to unravel his former beliefs and find an unquestioning truth in which he can build all other truths without the errors of deception leading him astray. Descartes begins his search by questioning how his former beliefs became questionable and faulty in the first place. In meditation one Descartes explains that everything that he had previously believed in before had been learned either by his sensory perceptions or through his sensory†¦show more content†¦Which leads Descartes to distrust all his sensory perceptions, because he feels that they can be used against him to deceive him. However Descartes does see that even though his senses can deceive him that doesn’t mean that his senses aren’t altogether a deception themselves. His mind cannot create something that he himself has never felt, heard, seen, smelled, or tasted before, the mind creates what it has encountered before and sometimes even if you haven’t encountered a specific s ituation or sensation the mind will at least compare it to something of similar sensation. So, for this Descartes knows that his senses have the ability to deceive him but that when they do deceive him they are using real reference points. With the false sensory perceptions in mind, Descartes believes of this idea that an evil demon exist to solely try and deceive him using his senses. Which leads Descartes to cut out all understanding and beliefs of everything he cant be sure of â€Å"no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies† (pg. 139). But then Descartes realizes and states in his second meditation, if he cut outs everything in which he thought existed what would he be left with, nothing, would he himself even exist? No, he has to exist right because he’s thinking and the evil demon is deceiving him. The evil demon would not try and deceive him if he did not exist in the first place. (Descartes Meditations 1-3, slide 26) This train of thought leads Descartes to his most famous line and the basis

Guidance and Counselling Thesis Free Essays

Comprehensive Guidance Programs That Work II Norman Gysbers and Patricia Henderson A Model Comprehensive Guidance Program Chapter 1 Norman C. Gysbers The Comprehensive Guidance Program Model described in this chapter had its genesis in the early 1970s. In 1972, the staff of a federally funded project at the University of Missouri-Columbia conducted a national conference on guidance and developed a manual to be used by state guidance leaders as a guide to developing their own manuals for state and local school district use. We will write a custom essay sample on Guidance and Counselling Thesis or any similar topic only for you Order Now The manual was published in early 1974 and provided the original description of the Comprehensive Guidance Program Model. From the 1940s to the 1970s, the position orientation to guidance dominated professional training and practice in our schools. The focus was on a position (counselor) and a process (counseling), not on a program (guidance). Administratively, guidance, with its position orientation, was included in pupil personnel services along with other such services as attendance, social work, psychological, psychiatric, speech and hearing, nursing, and medical (Eckerson Smith, 1966). The position orientation had its beginnings when guidance was first introduced in the schools as vocational guidance. As early as 1910, vocational counselors had been appointed in the elementary and secondary schools of Boston, and by 1915 a central office Department of Vocational Guidance had been established with a director, Susan J. Ginn. The vocational counselors in Boston were teachers who took on the work with no financial return and often no relief from other duties (Ginn, 1924). What were the duties of vocational counselors? The Duties of a Vocational Counselor: 1. To be the representative of the Department of Vocational Guidance in the district; 2. To attend all meetings of counselors called by the director of Vocational Guidance; 3. To be responsible for all material sent out to the school by the Vocational Guidance Department; 4. To gather and keep on file occupational information; 5. To arrange with the local branch librarians about shelves of books bearing upon educational and vocational guidance; 6. To arrange for some lessons in occupations in connection with classes in Oral English and Vocational Civics, or wherever principal and counselor deem it wise; 7. To recommend that teachers show the relationship of their work to occupational problems; 8. To interview pupils in grades 6 and above who are failing, attempt to find the reason, and suggest remedy. 9. To make use of the cumulative record card when advising children; 10. To consult records of intelligence tests when advising children; 11. To make a careful study with grade 7 and grade 8 of the bulletin â€Å"A Guide to the Choice of Secondary School†; 12. To urge children to remain in school; 13. To recommend conferences with parents of children who are failing or leaving school; 14. To interview and check cards of all children leaving school, making clear to them the requirements for obtaining working certificates; 15. To be responsible for the filling in of Blank 249 and communicate with recommendations to the Department of Vocational Guidance when children are in need of employment. (Ginn, 1924, pp. 5-7) As more and more positions titled vocational counselor were filled in schools across the country, concern was expressed about the lack of centralization, the lack of a unified program. In a review of the Boston system, Brewer (1922) stated that work was â€Å"commendable and promising† (p. 36). At the same time, however, he expressed concern about the lack of effective centralization: In most schools two or more teachers are allowed part-time for counseling individuals, but there seems to be no committee of cooperation between the several schools, and no attempt to supervise the work. It is well done or indifferently done, apparently according to the interest and enthusiasm of the individual principal or counselor. p. 35) Myers (1923) made the same point when he stated that â€Å"a centralized, unified program of vocational guidance for the entire school of a city is essential to the most effective work† (p. 139). The lack of a centralized and unified program of guidance in the schools to define and focus the work of vocational counselors presented a serious problem. If there was no agreed-upon, centralized structure to organize and direct the work of building-level vocational counselors, then â€Å"other duties as assigned† could become a problem. As early as 1923 this problem was recognized by Myers (1923). Another tendency dangerous to the cause of vocational guidance is the tendency to load the vocational counselor with so many duties foreign to the office that little real counseling can be done. The principal, and often the counselor himself, has a very indefinite idea of the proper duties of this new office. The counselor’s time is more free from definite assignments with groups or classes of pupils than is that of the ordinary teacher. If well chosen he has administrative ability. It is perfectly natural, therefore, for the principal to assign one administrative duty after another to the counselor until he becomes practically assistant principal, with little time for the real work of a counselor. (p. 141) During the 1920s and 1930s, as formal education was being shaped and reshaped as to its role in society, a broader mission for education emerged. Added to the educational mission was a vocational mission. How did education respond to these additional tasks and challenges? One response was to add pupil personnel work to the education system. What was pupil personnel work? According to Myers (1935), â€Å"pupil personnel work is a sort of handmaiden of organized education. It is concerned primarily with bringing the pupils of the community into the educational environment of the schools in such condition and under circumstances as will enable them to obtain the maximum of the desired development† (p. 804). In his article, Myers (1935) contrasted pupil personnel work and personnel work in industry. He then listed eight activities he would include in pupil personnel work and the personnel who would be involved, including attendance officers, visiting teachers, school nurses, school physicians, as well as vocational counselors. In his discussion of all the activities involved in pupil personnel work and the personnel involved, he stated that â€Å"Probably no activity in the entire list suffers so much from lack of a coordinated programs as does guidance, and especially the counseling part of it† (p. 807). In the late 1920s, in response to the lack of an organized approach to guidance, the services model of guidance was initiated to guide the work of individuals designated as counselors. Various services were identified as necessary to provide to students, including the individual inventory service, information service, counseling service, placement service, and follow-up service (Smith, 1951). By this time too, the traditional way of describing guidance as having three aspects – vocational, educational, and personal-social – was well established. Vocational guidance, instead of being guidance, had become only one part of guidance. By the 1940s and 1950s, guidance was firmly established as a part of pupil personnel services with its emphasis on the position of counselor. Beginning in the 1960s, but particularly in the 1970s, the concept of guidance for development emerged. During this period, the call came to re-orient guidance from what had become an ancillary set of services delivered by a person in a position (the counselor) to a comprehensive, developmental program. The call for reorientation came from diverse sources, including a renewed interest in vocational-career guidance (and its theoretical base, career development), a renewed interest in developmental guidance, concern about the efficacy of the prevailing approach to guidance in the school, and concern about accountability and evaluation. The work of putting comprehensive guidance programs into place in the schools continued in the 1980s. Increasingly, sophisticated models began to be translated into practical, workable programs to be implemented in the schools. As we near the close of the 1990s, comprehensive guidance programs are rapidly encompassing the position orientation to guidance. Comprehensive guidance programs are becoming the major way of organizing and managing guidance in the schools across the country. This chapter begins with a brief review of traditional organizational patterns for guidance. Next, the development of a Comprehensive Guidance Program Model that had its genesis in the early 1970s is presented. The content of the model is described, ollowed by a presentation of the structure of the program, the processes used in the program, and the time allocations of staff required to carry out the program. Finally, there is discussion of the program resources required for the model if it is to function effectively. Traditional Organizational Patterns By the 1960s, the evolution of guidance in the schools had reached a peak. The guidance provisions of the National Defense Education Act of 1958 (Public Law 85-864) caused the nu mber of secondary counselors in schools to increase substantially. Later, due to an expansion of the guidance provisions of the act, elementary guidance was supported and as a result, the number of elementary counselors in schools increased rapidly. Counselors put their expertise to work in schools where three traditional organizational patterns for guidance were prevalent, often under the administrative structure called pupil personnel services or student services; the services model, the process model, or the duties model. In many schools, combinations of these three approaches were used. Services The ervices model had its origins in the 1920s and consists of organizing the activities of counselors around major services including assessment, information, counseling, placement and follow-up. Although the activities that are usually listed under each of these services are important and useful, it is a limited model for three reasons. First, it is primarily oriented to secondary schools. Second, it does not lend itself easily to the identification of student outcomes. And third, it does not specify how the time of counselors should be allocated. Processes The process model had its origins in the 1940s. It emphasizes the clinical and therapeutic aspects of counseling, particularly the processes of counseling, consulting, and coordinating. This model is appealing because it is equally applicable to elementary and secondary counselors. However, the process model has some of the same limitations as the services model: It does not lend itself easily to the identification of student outcomes and it does not specify allocations of counselor time. Duties Often, instead of describing some organizational pattern such as the services model or the process model, counselor duties are simply listed (duties model). Sometimes these lists contain as many as 20-30 duties and the last duty is often â€Å"and perform other duties as assigned from time to time. † Although equally applicable to elementary school and secondary school counselors, student outcomes are difficult to identify and counselor time is almost impossible to allocate effectively. Position Oriented Rather Than Program Focused One result of these traditional organizational patterns has been to emphasize the position of the counselor, not the program of guidance. Over the years, as guidance evolved in the schools, it became position oriented rather than program focused. As a result, guidance was an ancillary support service in the eyes of many people. This pattern placed counselors mainly in a remedial-reactive role – a role that is not seen as mainstream in education. What was worse, this pattern reinforced the practice of counselors performing many administrative-clerical duties because these duties could be defended as being â€Å"of service to somebody. † Because of the lack of an adequate organization framework, guidance had become an undefined program. Guidance had become the add-on profession, while counselors were seen as the â€Å"you-might-as-well† group (â€Å"While you are oing this task, you might as well do this one too†). Because of the absence of a clear organizational framework for guidance, it was easy to assign counselors new duties. Counselors had flexible schedules. And, since time was not a consideration, why worry about removing current duties when new ones were added? Origin of the Comprehensive Gu idance Program Model In October of 1969, the University of Missouri-Columbia conducted a national conference on career guidance, counseling and placement that led to regional conferences held across the country during the spring of 1970. Then in 1971, the University of Missouri-Columbia was awarded a U. S. Office of Education grant under the direction of Norman C. Gysbers to assist each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico in developing models or guides for implementing career guidance, counseling and placement programs in their local schools. Project staff in Missouri conducted a national conference in St. Louis in January of 1972 and developed a manual (Gysbers Moore, 1974) to be used by the states as they developed their own guides. The manual that was published in February of 1974 provided the first description of an organizational framework for the Comprehensive Guidance Program Model that was to be refined in later work (Gysbers, 1978; Gysbers Henderson, 1994; Gysbers Moore, 1981; Hargens Gysbers, 1984). The original organizational framework for the Comprehensive Guidance Program Model contained three interrelated categories of functions, and on-call functions. The curriculum-based category brought together those guidance activities which took place primarily in the context of regularly scheduled courses of study in an educational setting. These activities were a part of regular school subjects or were organized around special topics in the form of units, mini courses, or modules. They were based on need statements and translated into goals and objectives and activities necessary for the development of all students. Typical topics focused on self-understanding, interpersonal relationships, decision making, and information about the education, work, and leisure worlds. School counselors were involved directly with students through class instruction, group processes, or individual discussions. In other instances, school counselors worked directly and cooperatively with teachers, providing resources and consultation. Individual facilitation functions included those systematic activities of the comprehensive guidance program designed to assist students in monitoring and understanding their development in regard to their personal, educational, and occupational goals, values, abilities, aptitudes, and interests. School counselors served in the capacity of â€Å"advisers,† â€Å"learner managers,† or â€Å"development specialists. Personalized contact and involvement were stressed instead of superficial contact with each student once a year to fill out a schedule. The functions in this category provided for the accountability needed in an educational setting to ensure that students’ uniqueness remained intact and that educational resources were used to facilitate their life career development. On-call functions focused on direct, immediate responses to stu dents needs such as information seeking, crisis counseling, and teacher/parent/specialist consultation. In addition, on-call functions were supportive of the curriculum-based and individual facilitation functions. Adjunct guidance staff (peers, paraprofessionals, and volunteers/support staff) aided school counselors in carrying out on-call functions. Peers were involved in tutorial programs, orientation activities, ombudsman centers, and (with special training) cross-age counseling and leadership in informal dialogue centers. Paraprofessionals and volunteers provided meaningful services in placement and followup activities, community liaison, career information centers, and club leadership activities. The 1974 version of the model focused on the importance of counselor time usage by featuring â€Å"time distribution wheels† to show how counselors’ time could be distributed to carry out a developmental guidance program. A chart was provided to show how counselors’ time could be distributed across a typical school week using the three categories as organizers. REFINEMENTS TO THE COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE PROGRAM MODEL In 1978, Gysbers described refinements that had been made to the model since 1974. By 1978, the focus was on a total comprehensive, developmental guidance program. It included the following elements: definition, rationale, assumptions, content model, and process model. The content model described the knowledge and skills that students would acquire with the help of activities in the guidance program. The process model grouped the guidance activities and processes used in the program into four interrelated categories: curriculum-based processes, individual-development processes, on-call responsive processes, and systems support processes. It is interesting to note the changes that had been made between 1974 and 1978 in the model. The concepts of definition, rationale, and assumptions had been added. The model itself was now organized into two parts. The first part listed the content to be learned by students, while the second part organized into four categories the guidance activities and processes needed in a program. The category of individual facilitation was changed to individual development, the word responsive was added to on-call, and a new category – systems support – was added. Also in 1978, Gysbers described seven steps required to â€Å"remodel a guidance program while living in it†: 1. Decide you want to change. 2. Form work groups. . Assess current programs. 4. Select program model. 5. Compare current program with program model. 6. Establish transition timetable. 7. Evaluate. Between 1978 and 1981, further refinements were made in the model. These refinements appeared in Improving Guidance Programs by Gysbers and Moore (1981). By then, the basic structure of the model was est ablished. The terms â€Å"content model† and â€Å"process model† had been dropped. Also, the steps for remodeling a guidance program, first delineated in 1978, formed the basis for the organization the chapters in Improving Guidance Programs and were described in detail. Between 1981 and 1988, the model was being used by state departments of education and local school districts with increasing frequency. During these years, two school districts in particular became involved: St. Joseph School District, St. Joseph, Missouri and Northside Independent School District, San Antonio, Texas. Hargens and Gysbers (1984), writing in The School Counselor, presented a case study of how the model was implemented in the St. Joseph School District. The work in the Northside Independent School District became the basis for much of the most recent description of the model (Gysbers Henderson, 1994). As the 1980s progressed, a number of states and a number of additional school districts across the country began to adapt the model to fit their needs. In 1988, the first edition of Gysbers and Henderson’s book Developing and Managing Your School Guidance Program was published by the American Association for Counseling and Development, AACD (now the American Counseling Association, ACA). Using the framework of the model presented in 1981, Gysbers and Henderson expanded and extended the model substantially. Building upon the experiences of a number of local school districts and states and with particular emphasis on the experiences of the Northside Independent School District, the planning, design, implementation, and evaluation phases of the model were elaborated upon in much more detail. Sample forms, procedures, and methods, particularly those from Northside, were used extensively to illustrate the model and its implementation. The second edition of the book Developing and Managing Your School Guidance Program by Gysbers and Henderson was published in 1994. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE PROGRAM MODEL Conceptual Foundation The perspective of human development that serves as the foundation for the model and as a basis for identifying the guidance knowledge, skills, and attitudes (competencies) that students need to master is called life career development. Life career development is defined as self-development over a person’s life span through the integration of the roles, setting, and events in a person’s life. The word life in the definition indicates that the focus of this conception of human development is on the total person – the human career. The word career identifies and relates the many often varied roles that individuals assume (student, worker, consumer, citizen, parent); the settings in which individuals find themselves (home, school, community); and the events that occur over their lifetimes (entry job, marriage, divorce, retirement). The word development is used to indicate that individuals are always in the process of becoming. When used in sequence, the words life career development bring these separate meaning words together, but at the same time a greater meaning evolves. Life career development describes total individuals – unique individuals, with their own lifestyles (Gysbers Moore, 1974, 1975, 1981). The meaning of the word career in the phrase life career development differs substantially from the usual definition of the term. Career focuses on all aspects of life as interrelated parts of the whole person. The term career, when viewed from this broad perspective, is not a synonym for occupation. People have careers; the marketplace has occupations. Unfortunately, too many people use the word career when they hould use the word occupation. All people have careers – their lives are their careers. Finally, the words, life career development do not delineate and describe only one part of human growth and development. Although it is useful to focus at times on different areas (e. g. , physical, emotional, and intellectual), it is also necessary to integrate these areas. Life career development is an organizing and integrating concept fo r understanding and facilitating human development. Wolfe and Kolb (1980) summed up the life view of career development as follows: Career development involves one’s whole life, not just occupation. As such, it concerns the whole person, needs and wants, capacities and potentials, excitements and anxieties, insights and blind spots, warts and all. More than that, it concerns his/her life. The environment pressures and constraints, the bonds that tie him/her to significant others, responsibilities to children and aging parents, the total structure of one’s circumstances are also factors that must be understood and reckoned with, in these terms, career development and personal development converge. Self and circumstances – evolving, changing, unfolding in mutual interaction – constitute the focus and the drama of career development. (pp. 1-2) COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE PROGRAM MODEL ELEMENTS The model program (see Figure 1. 1) consists of three elements: content, organizational framework, and resources. CONTENT There are many examples today of content (student knowledge and skills) for guidance. The content is generally organized around areas or domains such as career, educational, and personal-social. Most often, the content is stated in a student competency format. For purposes of this chapter, the three domains of human development that are featured in the life career development concept are presented here: self-knowledge and interpersonal skills; life roles, setting and events; and life career planning (Gysbers Henderson, 1994; Gysbers Moore, 1974, 1981). Student competencies are generated from these domains to provide example program content for the model. Self-knowledge and Interpersonal Skills In the self-knowledge and interpersonal skills domain of life career development, the focus is on helping students understand themselves and others. The main concepts of this domain focus on students’ awareness and acceptance of themselves, their awareness and acceptance of others, and their development of interpersonal skills. Within this domain, students begin to develop an awareness of their interpersonal characteristics – interests, aspirations, and abilities. Students learn techniques for self-appraisal and the analysis of their personal characteristics in terms of a real-ideal self-continuum. They begin to formulate plans for self-improvement in such areas as physical and mental health. Individuals become knowledgeable about the interactive relationship of self and environment in such a way that they develop personal standards and a sense of purpose in life. Students learn how to create and maintain relationships and develop skills that allow for beneficial interaction within those relationships. They can use self-knowledge in life career planning. They have positive interpersonal relations and are self-directed in that they accept responsibility for their own behavior. See Figure 1. 1 Below The model program consists of three elements: content, organizational framework, and resources. Comprehensive Guidance Program Elements Content Organizational Framework, Activities, Time Resources COMPETENCIES †¢ †¢ †¢ Student Competencies Grouped by domains STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS †¢ Definition †¢ Assumptions †¢ Rational PROGRAM COMPONENTS SAMPLE PROCESSES Guidance Curriculum Structured Groups Classroom presentations Individual Planning Advisement Assessment Placement Follow-up †¢ Responsive Services Individual counseling Small group counseling Consultation Referral System Support Management activities Consultation Community outreach Public relations †¢ †¢ RESOURCES †¢ Human †¢ Financial †¢ Political SUGGESTED DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL COUNSELOR TIME Elementary School 35-45% 5-10% 30-40% 10-15% Middle/Junior School 25-35% 15-25% 30-40% 10-15% High School 15-25% 25-35% 25-35% 15-20% Guidance Curriculum Individual Planning Responsive Services System Support Life Roles, Settings, and Events The emphasis in this domain of life career development is on the interrelatedness of various life roles (learner, citizen, consumer), settings (home, school, work, and community), and events (job entry, marriage, retirement) in which students participate over the life span. Emphasis is given to the knowledge and understanding of the sociological, psychological, and economic dimensions and structure of their worlds. As students explore the different aspects of their roles, they learn how stereotypes affect their own lives and others’ lives. The implications of futuristic concerns is examined and related to their current lives. Students learn the potential impact of change in modern society and the necessity of being able to project themselves into the future. In this way, they begin to predict the future, foresee alternatives they may choose, and plan to meet the requirements of the life career alternatives they may choose. As a result of learning about the multiple options and dimensions of their worlds, students understand the reciprocal influences of life roles, settings, and events, and they can consider various lifestyle patterns. Life Career Planning The life career planning domain in life career development is designed to help students understand that decision making and planning are important tasks in everyday life and to recognize the need for life career planning. Students learn about the many occupations and industries in the work world and of their groupings according to occupational requirements and characteristics, as well as learning about their own personal skills, interests, values, and aspirations. Emphasis is placed on students’ learning of various rights and responsibilities associated with their involvement in a life career. The central focus of this domain is on the mastery of decision-making skills as a part of life career planning. Students develop skills in this area by learning the elements of the decision-making process. They develop skills in gathering information from relevant sources, both external and internal, and learn to use the collected information in making informed and reasoned decisions. A major aspect of this process involves the appraisal of personal values as they may relate to prospective plans and decisions. Students engage in planning activities and begin to understand that they can influence their future by applying such skill. They accept responsibility for making their own choices, for managing their own resources, and for directing the future course of their own lives. ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK The model program (see Figure 1. 1) contains seven components organized around two major categories: structural components and program components (Gysbers Henderson, 1994; Gysbers Moore, 1981). The three structural components describe the student focus of the program and how the program connects to other educational programs (definition), offer reasons why the program is important and needed (rational), and provide the premises upon which the program rests (assumptions). The four program components delineate the major activities and the roles and responsibilities of personnel involved in carrying out the guidance program. These four program elements are as follows: guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and system support. Structural Components Definition The program definition includes the mission statement of the guidance program and its centrality within the school district’s total educational program. It delineates the competencies that individuals will possess as a result of their involvement in the program, summarizes the components, and identifies the program’s clientele. Rational The rationale discusses the importance of guidance as an equal partner in the educational system and provides reasons why students need to acquire the competencies that will accrue as a result of their involvement in a comprehensive guidance program. Included are conclusions drawn from student and community needs assessments and statements of the goals of the local school district. Assumptions Assumptions are the principles that shape and guide the program. They include statements regarding the contributions that school counselors and guidance programs make to students’ development, the premises that undergird the comprehensiveness and the balanced nature of the program, and the relationships between the guidance program and the other educational programs. Program Components An examination of the needs of students, the variety of guidance methods, techniques, and resources available, and the increases expectations of policy-makers and consumers indicates that a new structure for guidance programs in the schools is needed. The position orientation organized around the traditional services (information, assessment, counseling, placement, and follow-up) and three aspects (educational, personal-social, and vocational) of guidance is no longer adequate to carry the needed guidance activities in today’s schools. When cast as a position and organized around services, guidance is often seen as ancillary and only supportive to instruction, rather than equal and complementary. The â€Å"three aspects† view of guidance frequently has resulted in fragmented and eventoriented activities and, in some instances, the creation of separate kinds of counselors. For example, educational guidance is stressed by academic-college counselors, personalsocial guidance becomes the territory of mental health counselors, and vocational guidance is the focus of vocational counselors. If the traditional structures for guidance in the schools are no longer adequate, what structure is needed? One way to answer this question is to ask and answer the following questions: Are all students in need of specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are the instructional province of guidance programs? Do all students need assistance with their personal, educational, and occupational plans? Do some students require special assistance in dealing with developmental problems and immediate crises? Do educational programs in the school and the staff involved require support that can be best supplied by school counselors? An affirmative answer to these four questions implies a structure that is different from the traditional position model. A review of the variety of guidance methods, techniques, and resources available today and an understanding of the expectations of national and state policy-makers and consumers of guidance also suggests the needs for a different model. The structure suggested by an affirmative answer to the four questions and by a review of the literature is a program model of guidance techniques, methods, and resources organized around four interactive program components: guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and system support (Gysbers Henderson, 1994; Gysbers Moore, 1981). The curriculum component was chosen because a curriculum provides a vehicle to impart guidance content to all students in a systematic way. Individual planning was included as a part of the model because of the increasing need for all students to systematically plan, monitor, and manager their development and to consider and take action on their next steps personally, educationally, and occupationally. The responsive services component was included because of the need to respond to the direct, immediate concerns of students, whether these concerns involve crisis counseling, referral, or consultation with parents, teachers, or other specialists. Finally, the system support component was included because, if the other guidance processes are to be effective, a variety of support activities such as staff development, research, and curriculum development are required. Also, system support encompasses the need for the guidance program to provide appropriate support to other programs in including assuming â€Å"fair share† responsibilities in operating the school. These components, then, serve as organizers for the many guidance methods, techniques, and resources required in a comprehensive guidance program. In addition, they also serve as a check on the comprehensiveness of the program. A program is not comprehensive unless counselors are providing activities to students, parents, and staff in all four program components. Guidance Curriculum This model of guidance is based on the assumption that guidance programs include content that all students should learn in a systematic, sequential way. In order for this to happen, counselors must be involved in teaching, team teaching, or serving as a resource for those who teach a guidance curriculum. This is not a new idea; the notion of guidance curriculum has deep, historical roots. What is new however, is the array of guidance and counseling techniques, methods, and resources currently available that work best as part of a curriculum. Also new is the concept that a comprehensive guidance program has an organized and sequential curriculum. The guidance curriculum typically consists of student competencies (organized by domain) and structured activities presented systematically through such strategies as the following: †¢ Classroom Activities Counselors teach, team teach, or support the teaching of guidance curriculum learning activities or unites in classrooms. Teachers also may teach such units. The guidance curriculum is not limited to being part of only one or two subjects but should be included in as many subjects as possible throughout the total school curriculum. These activities may be conducted in the classroom, guidance center, or other school facilities. †¢ Group Activities Counselors organize large-group sessions such as career days and educational/college/vocational days. Other members of the guidance team, including teachers and administrators, may be involved in organizing and conducting such sessions. Although counselors’ responsibilities include organizing and implementing the guidance curriculum, the cooperation and support of the entire faculty are necessary for its successful implementation. Individual Planning Concern for individual student development in a complex society has been a cornerstone of the guidance movement since the days of Frank Parsons. In recent years the concern for individual student development has intensified as society has become more complex. This concern is manifested in many ways, but perhaps is expressed most succinctly in a frequently stated guidance goal: â€Å"Helping all students become the persons they are capable of becoming. † To accomplish the purposes of this component of the Model, activities and procedures are provided to assist students in understanding and periodically monitoring their development. Students come to terms with their goals, values, abilities, aptitudes, and interests (competencies) so they can continue to progress educationally and occupationally. Counselors become â€Å"person-development-and-placement specialists. † Individual planning consists of activities that help students to plan, monitor, and manage their own learning and their personal and career development. The focus is on assisting students, in close collaboration with parents, to develop, analyze, and evaluate their educational, occupational, and personal goals and plans. Individual planning is implemented through such strategies as: †¢ Individual Appraisal Counselors assist students to assess and interpret their abilities, interests, skills, and achievement. The use of test information and other data about students is an important part of helping them develop immediate and long-range goals and plans. †¢ Individual Advisement Counselors assist students to use self-appraisal information along with personal-social, educational, career, and labor market information to help them plan and realize their personal, educational, and occupational goals. †¢ Placement Counselors and other educational personnel assist students to make the transition from school to work or to additional education and training. Responsive Services Problems relating to academic learning, personal identity issues, drugs, and peer and family relationships are increasingly a part of the educational scene. Crisis counseling, diagnostic and remediation activities, and consultation and referral must continue to be included as an ongoing part of a comprehensive guidance program. In addition, a continuing need exists for the guidance program to respond to the immediate information-seeking needs of students, parents, and teachers. The responsive services component organizes guidance techniques and methods to respond to these concerns and needs as they occur; it is supportive of the guidance curriculum and individual planning components as well. Responsive services consist of activities to meet the immediate needs and concerns of students, teachers, and parents, whether these needs or concerns require counseling, consultation, referral, or information. Although counselors have special training and possess skills to respond to immediate needs and concerns, the cooperation and support of the entire faculty are necessary for this component’s successful implementation. Responsive services are implemented through such strategies as: †¢ Consultation Counselors consult with parents, teachers, other educators, and community agencies regarding strategies to help students deal with and resolve personal, educational, and career concerns. †¢ Personal Counseling Counseling is provided on a small-group and individual basis for students who have problems or difficulties dealing with relationships, personal concerns, or normal developmental tasks. The focus is on assisting students to identify problems and causes, alternatives, possible consequences, and to take action when appropriate. †¢ Crisis Counseling Counseling and support are provided to students or their families facing emergency situations. Such counseling is normally short term and temporary in nature. When necessary, appropriate referral sources are used. †¢ Referral Counselors use other professional resources of the school and community to refer students when appropriate. These referral sources may include: mental health agencies employment and training programs vocational rehabilitation juvenile services social services special school programs (special or compensatory education) The responsive services component also provides for small-group counseling. Small groups of students with similar concerns can be helped by intensive small-group counseling. All students may not need such assistance, but it is available in a comprehensive program. Adjunct guidance staff—peers, paraprofessionals, volunteers—can aid counselors in carrying out their responsive activities. Peers can be involved in tutorial programs, orientation activities, ombudsman functions and, with special training, cross-age counseling and leadership in informal dialog. Paraprofessionals and volunteers can provide assistance in such areas as placement, follow-up, and community-school-home liaison activities. System Support The administration and management of a comprehensive guidance program require an ongoing support system. That is why system support is a major program component. Unfortunately, it is often overlooked or only minimally appreciated. And yet, the system support component is as important as the other three components. Without continuing support, the other three components of the guidance program are ineffective. This component is implemented and carried out through such activities as the following: †¢ Research and Development Guidance program evaluation, follow-up studies, and the continued development and updating of guidance learning activities are some examples of the research and development work of counselors. †¢ Staff/Community Public Relations The orientation of staff and the community to the comprehensive guidance program through the use of newsletters, local media, and school and community presentations are examples of public relations work. †¢ Professional Development Counselors must regularly update their professional knowledge and skills. This may include participation in school inservice training, attendance at professional meetings, completion of postgraduate course work, and contributions to the professional literature. †¢ Committee/Advisory Boards Serving on departmental curriculum committees and community committees or advisory boards are examples of activities in this area. †¢ Community Outreach Included in this area are activities designed to help counselors become knowledgeable about community resources, employment opportunities, and the local labor market. This may involve counselors visiting local businesses and industries and social services agencies. Program Management and Operations This area includes the planning and management tasks needed to support the activities of a comprehensive guidance program. Also included in the system support component are activities that support programs other than guidance. These activities may include counselors being involved in helping interpret student test re sults to teachers, parents, and administrators, serving on departmental curriculum committees (helping interpret student needs data for curriculum revision), and working with school administrators (helping interpret student needs and behaviors). Care must be taken, however, to watch the time given to these duties because the primary focus for counselors is their work in the first three components of the comprehensive guidance program. It is important to realize that if the guidance program is well run, focusing heavily on the first three components, it will provide substantial support for other programs and personnel in the school and the community. Program Time Counselors’ professional time is a critical element in the Model. How should professional certified counselors spend their time? How should this time be spread across the total program? In this Model, the four program components provide the structure for making judgments about appropriate allocations of counselors’ time. One criterion to be used in making such judgments is the concept of program balance. The assumption is that counselor time should be spread across all program components, but particularly the first three. Another criterion is that different grade levels require different allocations of counselor time across the program components. For example, at the elementary level, more counselor time is spent working in the curriculum with less time spent in individual planning. In the high school, these time allocations are reversed. How counselors in a school district or school building plan and allocate their time depends on the needs of their students and their community. Once chosen, time allocations are not fixed forever. The purpose for making them is to provide direction to the program and to the administrators and counselors involved. Since the Model is a â€Å"100 percent program,† 100 % of counselors’ time must be spread across the four program components. Time allocations are changed as new needs arise, but nothing new can be added unless something else is removed. The assumption is that professional counselors spend 100 % of their time on task, implementing the guidance program. What are some suggested percentages? As an example, the state of Missouri (Starr Gysbers, 1997) has adopted suggested percentages of counselor time to be spent on each program component. These suggested percentages were recommended by Missouri counselors and administrators who had participated in the field-testing of the Missouri adaptation of the Comprehensive Guidance Program Model: Percent ES M/JH HS Guidance Curriculum 35-45 25-35 15-25 Individual Planning 05-10 15-25 25-35 Responsive Services 30-40 30-40 25-35 System Support 10-15 10-15 15-20 Resources Human Human resources for the guidance program include such individuals as counselors, teachers, administrators, parents, students, community members, and business and labor personnel. All have roles to play in the guidance program. While counselors are the main providers of guidance and counseling services and coordinators of the program, the involvement, cooperation, and support of teachers and administrators is necessary for the program to be successful. The involvement, cooperation, and support of parents, community members, and business and labor personnel also is critical. A SchoolCommunity Advisory Committee is recommended to bring together the talent and energy of school and community personnel. The School-Community Advisory Committee acts as a liaison between the school and community and provides recommendations concerning the needs of students and the community. A primary duty of this committee is to advise those involved in the guidance program. The committee is not a policy- or decision-making body; rather, it is a source of advice, counsel, and support and is a communication link between those involved in the guidance program and the school and community. The committee is a permanent part of the guidance program. A community person should be the chairperson. The use and involvement of an advisory committee will vary according to the program and the community. It is important, however, that membership be more than in name only. Members will be particularly helpful in developing and implementing the public relations plan for the community. Financial The financial resources of a comprehensive guidance program are crucial to its success. Examples of financial resources include budget, material, equipment, and facilities. The Model highlights the need for these resources through its focus on the physical space and equipment required to conduct a comprehensive program in a school district. To make the guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and system support components function effectively, adequate guidance facilities are required. Traditionally, guidance facilities have consisted of an office or suite of offices designed primarily to provide one-to-one counseling or consultation assistance. Such arrangements have frequently included reception or waiting areas that serve as browsing rooms where students have access to displays or files of educational and occupational information. Also, this space has typically been placed in the administrative wing of the school so that the counseling staff can be near the records and the administration. The need for individual offices is obvious because of the continuing need to carry on individual counseling sessions. A need also exists, however, to open up guidance facilities and make them more accessible to all students, teachers, parents, and community members. One way to make guidance facilities more usable and accessible is to reorganize traditional space into a guidance center. A guidance center brings together available guidance information and resources and makes them easily accessible to students. The center is used for such activities as group sessions, student self-exploration, and personalized research and planning. At the high school level, students receive assistance in areas such as occupational planning, job entry and placement, financial aid information and postsecondary educational opportunities. At the elementary school level, students and their parents receive information about the school, the community, and parenting skills; they also read books about personal growth and development. An area for play therapy can be provided in the guidance center. Although the center is available for use to school staff and community members, it is student centered, and many of the center activities are student planned as well as student directed. At the same time, the center is a valuable resource for teachers in their program planning and implementation. Employers, too, will find the center useful when seeking part-time or full-time workers. Clearly, the impact of the center on school and community can be substantial. If community members and parents are involved in the planning and implementation of the center and its activities, their interest could provide an impetus for the involvement of other community members. When parents and community members become involved in programs housed in the center, they experience the guidance program firsthand. Through these experiences, new support for the program may develop. The guidance center is furnished as comfortably as possible for all users. Provision is made for group as well as individual activities. Coordinating the operation of the guidance center is the responsibility of the guidance staff, but all school staff can be involved. It is recommended that at least one paraprofessional be a part of the staff to ensure that clerical tasks are carried out in a consistent and ongoing manner. Political Education is not simply influenced by politics, it is politics. The mobilization of political resources is key to a successful guidance program. Full endorsement of the guidance program by the Board of Education as a â€Å"program of studies of the district† is one example of mobilizing political resources. Another example is a clear and concise school district policy statement that highlights the integral and central nature of the school district’s comprehensive guidance program to other programs in the school district. Putting It All Together What does the Program Model look like when all of the Model’s elements are brought together? Figure 1 (see page 12) presents the Model on one page so that the three program elements can be seen in relationship to each other. Notice that the three program elements (program content, program structure, processes, and time, and program resources) represent the â€Å"means† of the program. Without these means in place, it is impossible to achieve the full results of the program and to fully evaluate the impact of the program on the students, the school, and the community. Some Final Thoughts The Program Model, by definition, leads to guidance activities and structured group experiences for all students. It de-emphasizes administrative and clerical tasks, one-toone counseling only, and limited accountability. It is proactive rather than reactive. Counselors are busy and unavailable for unrelated administrative and clerical duties because they have a guidance program to implement. Counselors are expected to do personal and crisis counseling as well as provide structured activities to all students. To fully implement the Program Model it is important that the program be as follows: 1. Understood as student-development oriented, not school maintenance-administrativeoriented. 2. Operated as a 100 % program; the four program components constitute the total program; there are no add-ons. 3. Started the first day of school and ended on the last day of school; not started in the middle of October with an ending time in April so that administrative, nonguidance tasks can be completed. . Understood as program focused, not position focused. 5. Understood as education-based, not agency or clinic based. References Brewer, J. M. (1922). The vocational guidance movement: Its problems and possibilities. New York: The Macmillan Company. Eckerson, L. O. , Smith, H. M. (1966). Scope of pupil personnel services. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. Ginn, S. J. (192 4). Vocational guidance in Boston Public Schools. The Vocational Guidance Magazine, 3, 3-7. Gysbers, N. C. (1978). Remodeling your guidance program while living in it. Texas Personnel and Guidance Association Journal, 6, 53-61. Gysbers, N. C. , Henderson, P. (1994). Developing and managing your school guidance program (2nd ed. ). Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development. Gysbers, N. C. , Moore, E. J. (1974). Career guidance, counseling and placement: Elements of an illustrative program guide (A life career development perspective). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri, Columbia. Gysbers, N. C. , Moore, E. J. (1975). Beyond career development—life career development. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 53, 647-652. Gysbers, N. C. , Moore, E. J. (1981). Improving guidance programs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hargens, M. , Gysbers, N. C. (1984). How to remodel a guidance program while living in it: A case study. The School Counselor, 30, 119-125. Myers, G. E. (1923). Critical review of present developments in vocational guidance with special reference to future prospects. The Vocational Guidance Magazine, 2 (6), 139-142. Myers, G. E. (1935). Coordinated guidance: Some suggestions for a program of pupil personnel work. Occupations, 13 (9), 804-807. Smith G. E. (1951). Principles and practices of the guidance program. New York: The Macmillan Company. Starr, M. F. , Gysbers, N. C. (1997). Missouri comprehensive guidance: A model for program development, implementation and evaluation (1997 Rev. ). Jefferson City: Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. Wolfe, D. M. , Kolb, D. A. (1980). Career Development, personal growth, and experimental learning. In J. W. Springer (Ed. ), Issues in career and human resource development (pp. 1-56). Madison, WI: American Society for Training and Development. How to cite Guidance and Counselling Thesis, Papers

Professional Communication Strategies and Technologies

Question: Discuss about the Professional Communicationfor Strategies and Technologies. Answer: Introduction Professional communication is defined as the different forms of speaking, listening, writing and giving responses which happen both in and beyond the workplace context. It may be either in person or electronically. Therefore, the professional communicators are expected to employ learning theory, strategies, and technologies to promote effective communication in their respective work settings. On the other hand, patient safety is the fundamental principle of health care that seeks to prevent any form of errors and adverse effects associated with medical practices which may be caused to patients. It involves actions persons and organizations to protect recipients from being harmed (Levetti, 2013). Patient safety encompasses physical, psychological, cultural and emotional security. This papers center of interest is to comprehensively discuss the significance of professional communication in ensuring patient safety. Importance of Professional Communication in Promoting Patient Safety The majority of health professionals presume that efficient communication only implies giving patients unambiguous and clear information in an appropriate manner. Although this notion is true, it is important to understand that communication entails listening and talking. The healthcare practitioners are less likely to make wrong conclusions when they listen to patients (Levett, 2013). A survey that was conducted on Australian patients and their families showed in 2006 regarding the benefits of effective communication revealed several outcomes. They include the reduction in stress and anxiety levels, an evident relationship between efficient communication and compliance with medication as well as programs on reliability, enhanced management of pain, improved mood and self-esteem management. Other benefits that were discovered are increased functional and psychological status, reduced length of hospital admission, improved symptom resolution, better coordination of care, reduced surgi cal deaths and post-operative shortcomings, reduction in costs, enhanced well-being and satisfaction of patients, error reduction and refined patient safety. Patient- Safe Communication The healthcare professional are always encouraged to use the patient-safe communication model that is a goal-oriented practice aimed at alleviating undesired events and assisting patients to obtain optimal end results. All aspects relating to patient care are pre-determined by how well the health care practitioners communicate amongst themselves as well as the patient they care (Levett, 2013). Therefore, clinical decisions grounded on misinterpreted or incomplete information are bound to inappropriate thus causing harm and distress to patients. For instance, it can lead to anger, hostility, and confusion, lack of trust, misunderstanding, and increased risk of error, poor compliance, and patient harm. Unsafe communication by health professionals is regarded as a breach of professional standards and may be informed of failure to monitor patient confidentiality and failure to respond well to questions among others. It is important to use an inter-professional collaborative approach (Lev itt,2013). It facilitates the structuring of care that is person-centered. It would help healthcare professionals to reinforce and accolade their services hence to desist from duplications and omissions in designing and coordinating care. One of its important aspects is patient-centered care that is based on the understanding that patients bring their skills, knowledge, and experiences about their condition and illness. It is crucial for the health practitioners to be open-minded, ethical, self-aware and have the strong sense of personal responsibility for action. Documenting Care It is regarded as a means of communication in the healthcare setting. It involves preparing an electronically generated or written legal record of interactions between health caregivers and patients at all levels of care which include identifying health problems, assessing, formulating, implementing and evaluating care (Hall, 2016). Management Information Systems (MIS) should be used to serve as legal records, facilitate patient care, assist in clinical research and enable decision making. It facilitates the delivery of the most efficient, valuable and cost-effective quality care to patients. Therefore, proper utilization of the most current forms, systems and documents are required to prevent any errors in care delivery. Provision of electronic health record (EHR) assists in tracking patient's progress and care thus allowing for access to more efficient care through the collection of high quality data meant for policy development and allocation of resources. For instance, electronic health records promote efficiencies in the healthcare system (Hall, 2 016). Inter-professional education (IPF) is perceived to be critical in health care as a means of enhancing patient-centered quality services and safety (Birk, 2017). There are several principles which promote better health care patient-oriented practice. They include accountability, responsibility, communication, coordination, mutual trust, cooperation and respect and contribute to patient safety (Van, 2009). There is a wealth of research information that upholds the benefits associated with efficient communication and healthcare outcomes for clinical teams and patients ("Impact of disclosure in healthcare" 2017). It is believed that the link a patient experiences with his or her clinician can primarily enhance their health arbitrated through participation in their care, patient self-management and adherence to treatment. Proper communication enables hospitalized patients to identify their diagnosis or the medication (s) names at discharge. Research conducted has revealed that ineffective team communication is the primary cause of medical errors ("Impact of disclosure in healthcare" 2017). The vulnerability of medical error rises when health care team members are in high-task situations, under stress and when communicating unclearly. High positive relations between communication skills of healthcare practitioners and patients ability to adhere to medical recommendations and adopt preventive health behavior is evident. Various studies manifest that the clinician's ability to describe, listen and empathize with can have a significant effect on functional and biological health outcomes, the experience of care and patient satisfaction ("Impact of communication in healthcare," 2017). Poor communication among clinical members is a common cause of clinical errors (Patel et at, 2014). Disclosure through commu nication decreases patient frustration and anger especially over perceived lack of empathy from caregivers and lack of information. Sharing crucial data promotes the safety of patients and reduces the cost, frequency and patient suffering related to adverse events (Robert et at, 2010). The majority of reported malpractice claims attribute to a breakdown in communication between a healthcare professional and patient. Conclusion Professional communication in the context of healthcare has had some setbacks. However, its benefits about patient safety cannot be underestimated. References Birk, T. (2017). Principles for Developing an Interprofessional Education Curriculum in a Healthcare Program. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 02(01). (2017). Retrieved 7 April 2017, from https://healthcarecomm.org/about-us/impact-of-communication-in-healthcare Hall, H. H. R. T. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Nursing and Midwifery. : Wolters Kluwer Health. Retrieved from: https://www.ebrary.com. In Patel, V. L., In Kaufman, D. R., In Cohen, T. (2014).Cognitive informatics in health and biomedicine: Case studies on critical care, complexity, and errors. Levett-Jones, T. (2013). Critical Conversations for Patient Safety. : Pearson Australia. Retrieved from: https://www.ebrary.com. Nemeth, C. P. (2008).Improving healthcare team communication: Building on lessons from aviation and aerospace. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. Robert, D. T, David, M. B, Judith, A.J, Thomas, H. G, Talking with Patients and Families about Medical Error:A Guide for Education and Practice Van, S. G. M. (2009).Communication skills for the health care professional: Concepts, practice, and evidence. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Cuba Research Paper Example

Cuba Paper Cuba is full of rich history, culture, unique religions, ethnic blends, and government policies.They have a Government so well known for its trickery, deceit, lies, and backstabbing.They also are becoming a new tourist hotspot. people have been flocking there since 1992, when tourism from the United States was allowed.The leader of Cuba is the 84 year old Fidel Castro who has turned Cuba into a Communist society. Most communist states fall shortly after their beginning.Cuba, however, has survived trade and tourist sanctions and the fall of its largest aid, the Soviet Union.It has been 45 years since the beginning of communist Cuba and the communist way of life still flourishes there.To begin with Cuba, Along with this is a historical overview explaining the end its colonization to the beginning of the Castro ruling era (Encarta 2000). In Cuba the people dress very much like Americans, while there are some differences. The men wear shoes that American teens would call Dress Shoes(Yahoo, 2004), while girls wear shoes that are dressy but a bit more casual (Yahoo, 2004).Morals and ethics were all determined by the family code, which was passed down. No child was ever considered illegitimate, if a mother has an affair and the father is not the husband, the husband is still the father. Men are the mostly dominant they hold most of the jobs, they are heads of the household (Encarta).On 20 dollars a month most families struggle to make it. Since 1991 a special 5-year plan was made to help get though the times with out the Soviet Union, or the United States.A tourists could easily spend 100 dollars a day if they only eat chicken and rice, sleep in a car one night, in a car, and only bring back a few souvenirs.People all over Cuba try to take advantage of the tourists by selling them cigars, offering spare rooms in their ho uses, even selling sexual favors to wealthy tourists.Tourists are t

Snowmobiles HIstory and the Influence of their Emissions

Snowmobiles HIstory and the Influence of their Emissions Free Online Research Papers Pictures of the Yellowstone Park Rangers wearing gas masks gained national attention to how much pollution snowmobiles were bringing into this world, national park areas and specifically Yellowstone National Park. In Yellowstone, where the cleanest air in the nation should be found, levels of pollution often exceed those of downtown Los Angelas (Measuring Concentrations of Selected Air Pollutants Inside California Vehicles Report). Studies were then quickly initiated and two stroke snowmobiles were banned from the park. Yet in many other places millions of riders still run these engines each winter to head into the snow covered play areas. There are no federal laws regulating snowmobile exhaust outside of Yellowstone. These machines are also not equipped with any devices that measure or control the pollution given off. Air pollution is well documented and can also be traced to many different health issues. This paper will review the snowmobiles history, the extent of snowmobil e pollution and the impact on human health. Snowmobiles first started gaining popularity in the 1960’s. At that time there were approximately a dozen different manufactures that sold their different versions of snowmobiles. Each snowmobile selling for a few hundred dollars a piece; each manufacturer selling 50-100 sleds each year. This is what started the sport, at that time nobody could imagine it would grow to what we have these days. This become more evident in the 1970’s with the â€Å"rapid technological advancements and more than 100 manufacturers that laid a major emphasis on racing and speed propelled snowmobiling as a sport† (American Snowmobiler: 30-31). During this time sales and promotional materials for snowmobiling showed happy eager riders bare handed and in stocking hats. Snowmobilers were having so much fun that the sales grew as fast as gas prices were raising. Most engines at that time cranked out approximately 20 to 35 horsepower. Snowmobile sales in 1971 rose to 495,000 world wide, with more than two million sold between 1970 and 1973. By 1977 the list of manufacturers shrunk to about seven due to the lean snow years, an oil embargo and tough economic times that set in. By the end of the 70’s decade the annual sales settled at about 250,000 sleds. Today’s snowmobiles have made drastic changes since the 60’s and 70’s era. There are now four different snowmobile manufacturers that build and sell snowmobiles. They are: Arctic Cat- headquarters in Thief River Falls, MN; Polaris- headquarters in Medina, MN; BRP (better known as Ski-Doo) headquarters in Valcourt, Quebec and Yamaha Corporation- headquarters in Cypress, CA. Between the four manufacturers in 2008 there were about 163,753 sold worldwide; 79,552 were sold in the United States and 50,556 were sold in Canada. Snowmobiles now are lightweight, being built out of aluminum materials and powered by motors that have up to 225 horsepower, this being four times the horsepower of what some Harleys have. These machines can easily reach 120 mph and get a person to where they want to go and fast. Among the many technological advances made by the manufacturer’s one of the biggest steps that has been and is being worked on is the cleaner four-stroke models. These new motors burn fuel the same way that a car engine does, which compared to a typical two-stroke motor it burns much cleaner and much more efficiently. But with efficiency and power also comes weight and clumsiness. These new sleds weight approximately 75-200 pounds more but also have 50% less emissions and create much less noise than the typical two-stroke snowmobile. Because of the weight differences and the inability for people to have the special add-ons, four-stroke snowmobiles have not made an enormous plunge quite yet in the world of snowmobiles. Therefore, the vast majority of snowmobilers still ride a two-stroke which are as polluting as their 1960’s era predecessors. Two-stroke snowmobile engines discharge up to one-third of their fuel unburned into the environment and is one of the largest unchecked sources of hydrocarbon pollution worldwide. The major concern with the discharge is threefold: the effect of toxic emissions on our country’s air quality, the discharge of raw fuel and the effect of both on water quality. In a two-stoke engine the oil is mixed with the fuel and 20% to 33% of the mixture is emitted unburned into the air and the snow pack (MDEQ 2004). Also, â€Å"the combustion process is relatively inefficient and results in high emissions of air pollutants† (NPS 2000). It is because of these two reasons the two stroke snowmobiles emit large amounts of carbon monoxide, smoke and unburned hydrocarbons. Other pollutants that are emitted include aldehydes, 3-butadiene, and benzene. â€Å"Tests have been done to prove that just one snowmobile creates the same amount of pollution that of 100 automobiles† (The New York Times, 2002). Every winter, snowmobiles dump more than 100,000 gallons of raw fuel and 2,500 gallons of raw two-cycle oil into just the National park ecosystems (J.T Turk). Pollutants from the snowmobile emissions are locked within the snow pack. The toxic effects of the built up pollutants in the snow pack are magnified during the first few days of spring, when they are released during snowmelt, causing elevated acidity levels that are in the waterways. This results in higher death rates of aquatic insects and amphibians (J.T Turk). The impact or the spring pollutants may have consequences for the surrounding watersheds. Acidity fluctuations can disable a watershed’s ability to regulate its own pH level, which could trigger system-wide problems and result in a long-term alteration of an entire ecosystem (Yellowstone National Park Visitor Study.). There has been a lot of research done on snowmobile pollution mainly in Yellowstone National Park, but as of today snowmobiles are permitted in 30 different park areas. Some of them include: Denali (AK), Grand Teton (WY), Voyageurs (MN), and Rocky Mountain (CO). Though many of the parks don’t allow snowmobiles to travel off the trail and also enforce speed limits, they still bring many people in for tourism and snowmobiling as a sport. As stated by John Little, â€Å"There are approximately 85,000 visitors each winter that generates over 30 million dollars throughout the surrounding states†. Those states include: Montana, Wyoming and Idaho. Along with the many visitors on snowmobiles, the money brought also come the pollution created by the sleds ridden throughout the parks. The scale of pollution documented in Yellowstone National Park is amazing. Snowmobiles were responsible for 68% to 90% of hydrocarbons emissions and 35% to 68% of the carbon monoxide emissions each year (NPS 2000). On a peak day in Yellowstone National Park snowmobiles released approximately 20 tons of hydrocarbons and 54 tons of carbon monoxide into the air (NPS 2000). This compared to the 2.5 tons of hydrocarbons and the 17.9 tons of carbon monoxide emitted from cars on the average day in July (NPS 2000). Being that the snowmobile season in Yellowstone National Park generally only lasts three months from mid December to mid March their emissions equaled the total annual emissions for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons form cars, buses and snowcoaches. While four-stroke snowmobiles are the only snowmobiles allowed in Yellowstone National Park these days, it is said by Michael J. Yochim that â€Å"four-stroke snowmobiles may be quieter overall, but the noise-like that of many snowcoaches is a lower frequency that travels even farther than the high frequencies of two-stroke machines, particularly when the air is cold†(p.212). Politically the sport of snowmobiling has also been affected. There have been many attempts to ban the use of snowmobiles in Yellowstone National Park and Grand Teton National Park. â€Å"Since 1996 the government has completed three major official assessments of snowmobiles’ impact on the parks in the winter† (New York Times, 2005). These studies helped to back the first attempt and gathering support to ban all snowmobile use in the National Parks in November 1999 by Congressman Bruce Vento (D-MN) and Chris Shays (R-CT). Then in April 2000, the ban was enforced in both parks only allowing the use of four-stroke snowmobiles and snowcoaches. This ban also enforced a limit as to how many (four-stroke) snowmobiles would be allowed into the park on a daily basis. This limit would be set at 540 per day. Since then there have been many attempts and suggestions to overturn the ban or alter it in different ways. None of which have been put through. In November of 2007, v arious officials in Washington compelled the Park managers to increase the number of snowmobiles allowed into the park on a daily basis. The limit was increased from 540 to 740 per day throughout the entire park. The Government is now on the fourth three year study trying to get the facts that the public and Parks have been looking for. Being there are so many different view points on the subject and facts being slanted by peoples personal opinions. The facts are often hard to understand. While the most recent, â€Å"Winter Plan Use† has banned the use of two-stroke engines in Yellowstone National Park and Grand Teton National Park. Then replacing them with cleaner burning four-stroke machines and limiting the number allowed into the parks on a daily basis. The studies being done seem to be the best available science to measure the effects of snowmobiles around the world not just how they affect the park areas. With the negative impacts of snowmobiles there are several strategies for minimizing pollution that will be identified. These include using oxygenated fuels like ethanol-based fuel and direct injection two-stroke engines. However, only four-stroke engines have been found to significantly reduce emissions. Electric prototype snowmobiles that produce no emissions have been developed, but not yet available to the public. According to an article in Snowest magazine, â€Å"The University of Denver tested the benefits of using oxygenated fuels in snowmobiles in Yellowstone† (Fuel the Fire). Oxygenated fuels allow for more efficient combustion and reduced pollution. Although they found 3% to 11% reduction of carbon monoxide, there was no reduction in hydrocarbon emissions. Direct-injection two-stroke engines have been shown to decrease hydrocarbon emissions from snowmobiles by 70 to 75% when compared with conventional two-stroke engines, but still had similar emissions for other pollutants (NPS 2000). However, either oxygenated, bio fuels or direct-injection two-stroke engines were shown to significantly reduce emissions and also have their performance drawbacks. Biofuels, including oxygenated fuels are becoming a bigger part of everybody’s lives whether we like it or not. Some negative aspects of using biofuels in two-stroke engines tend to cause issues. The blend does not burn as hot or as high as the octane fuel which requires the motors to be set up differently than if a high octane fuel is being used. Engines are designed for maximum power output and biofuels tend to also dry out the rubber-based o-rings, seals, gaskets and diaphragms in the fuel pumps of older sleds. Biofuels have been known to go stale faster, which also can cause problems in the fuel delivery systems in the older two-stroke engine. Several studies have also recommended replacing two-stroke engines with four-stroke engines to significantly reduce emissions and noise (NPS 2000). Banning two-stroke engines in Yellowstone National Park has resulted in a 60% reduction in carbon monoxide and a 96% reduction in Hydrocarbon emissions (Bishop et al. 2006). Additional, Bishop et al (2006) found improved fuel efficiency, reduction in visible exhaust clouds, odor and noise. In conclusion, throughout the many years snowmobiling as a sport has evolved into a major activity for many people throughout the world. With the technology evolvement that has happened from the 60’s to the current years, the rules and regulations have also evolved at the same time. The facts of pollution have made it clear that emissions are an issue that needs to be dealt with and handled. While Yellowstone National Park has banned two-stroke engines and the vast majority of snowmobilers in the United States use the out-dated two-stroke technology. Two-stroke engines are very polluting and the risk to the environment has been well documented. If land managers are concerned about air pollution and its effect on our environment, snowmobile use needs to be improved upon. Bishop, G.A. 2006. Winter motor-vehicle Emissions in Yellowstone National Park. Environmental Science and Technology 40(8): 2505-2510 Janes, Steve. Fuel the Fire. Snowests Mod-Stock 2008: 68-71. Little John, M. Yellowstone National Park visitor Study. University of Idaho, Cooperative Park Studies Unit. Report 75 1996 Montana Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ). 2004. Solutions- Oxygenated Fuels. deq.state.mt.us/cleansnowmobile/solutions/fuels/Oxygenated National Park Service (NPS). 2000. Air Quality Concerns Related to Snowmobile Usage in National Parks. Washington, D.C.: Feb.2000. The New York Times Sept 17, 2002, P. A30(N) Savage, Mark. Those 70’s Sleds!. American Snowmobiler 2008: 30-31. Rodes, C., 1998. Measuring Concentrations of Selected Air Pollutants Inside California Vehicles, Final Report under Contract No 95-339. California Air Resources Board. Yochim, Micheal. Yellowstone and the Snowmobile: Locking Horns Over National Park Use. University Press of Kansas, 2009. . 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